****medieval Philosophy And Scholasticism Poem by RAJ NANDY

****medieval Philosophy And Scholasticism

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(**In continuation to Medieval Philosophy after St Augustine
Part -III, on page 3)

PRELUDE TO SCHOLASTICISM
Medieval Philosophy just like the Middle Ages,
Were looked upon with unwarranted contempt by
the succeeding ages!
German philosopher Hegel preferred to skip over
those thousand years;
It was like ‘sighting land by an exhausted sailor’ -
he claimed,
When he reached the philosophy of Descartes!
But following the voluminous research by scholars
of our age,
A more balanced and impartial view now prevails!
Since quest for truth remains philosophy’s ultimate
mission,
The medieval scholars sincerely did uphold that
unique tradition!

St Benedict of Nursia (480-547 AD) :

On a rocky hill top eighty miles SE of Rome, -
Overlooking the serene Italian valley,
Lies the historic Monte Cassino, where in 529AD,
St. Benedict had set up his first monastery!
There he formulated the ‘Rule of Benedictine’, -
A model for Western Monasticism, which
became a boon for mankind!
I recall the contributions of his Benedictine Order, -
Of spiritual, economical and of educational kind;
Saving the Western culture from complete destruction;
Steering Europe through the ‘Dark Ages’ into light!
Therefore, the period between 550 to 1150 AD,
Has also been called the ‘Benedictine Centuries’!

PHILOSOPHY AFTER St.AUGUSTINE:
Between the 5th and 9th centuries after St Augustine,
The Patristic tradition was continued on Platonic lines;
By Boethius, St Isidore Seville and the Venerable Bede!
Medieval philosophy in its endeavor for truth,
Was clearly meant to include the Christian faith, -
As St. Augustine had already written and said!
But it was the scholar Boethius in the 6th century,
Who had formulated this principle more explicitly!
For in a short article on the Holy Trinity,
He had clearly made the following entreaty, -
“As far as you are able, join faith to reason”!
And this became the motto of the later Scholastics,
Reflected in their great works in prose majestic!

THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANC
Charlemagne the king of the Franks was crowned
Emperor at Rome in 800AD,
Following his annexation of much of Europe -
including Italy!
The 9th century saw a revival of art, religion and
culture;
And the Catholic Church played a major role in
this intellectual adventure!
Schools got created and leading scholars were
summoned;
Alcuin of York was made the head of the Palace
School at Aachen,
He was a Northumbrian monk and a deacon!
He standardized the curriculum of the created
schools, -
And to further education, wrote many textbooks!
But the greatest of the scholars during the latter era, -
Was a scholar from Ireland named John Scotus
Eriugena.

Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815-877AD)

He was an Irish theologian, Neoplatonist philosopher
and a poet,
Whose knowledge of Greek was rare in Europe
those days!
Was invited to France by King Charles the Bald, -
As head of the Palace School succeeding Alcuin of
York!
He revived philosophical thoughts which remained
dormant after Boethius!
But philosophy in the service of theology – was no
longer used;
For he tried to separate them without being confused!
The beginning of Scholasticism can be traced back
to Charlemagne,
And the establishment of proper schools and many
contributions by Schoolmen;
Which finally paved the way for the foundation of
Universities, -
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Medieval Era
to posterity!

The Foundation of European Universities:
Plato’s pagan Academy after 900 year’s of existence,
Was closed by the Christian Emperor Justinian in
529AD - in Athens!
Aristotle’s Lyceum came to an end in 86 BC,
When Roman General Sulla sacked the Athenian
City!
With the disappearance of classical Roman culture,
Monasteries in Europe became the centers of education
and culture!
During the early Middle Ages, Hilda the abbess of Whitby,
With separate wings for men and women in Yorkshire, -
Had established a double monastery!
In Europe cloister schools began to grow and flourish,
Inspired by the very nature of the Rule of St Benedict!
It was Alcuin of York who during Charlemagne’s reign,
Organized the teaching institutions for educational gains;
With historian Paul the Deacon, theologian Paulinus
Aquileia, and Peter of Pisa the grammarian!
Based on the pattern of the first Palace School at Aachen,
Schools sprang up at places like Tours, Orleans, and
Laon;
Where seeds of Carolingian Revival of Learning was
sown!
These earliest monastic and cathedral schools, -
Though primarily meant for training candidates for
priesthood,
Finally became the first Latin grammar schools!
Grammar, rhetoric and logic, termed the ‘trivium’,
Became the foundation of medieval education and
liberal arts;
And from here the development of Universities also
start!
Though the University of Constantinople was recognized
in 849 AD,
University of Bologna(1088) is known as the “mother
of European universities”, -
Since it was the first to issue proper university degree!
Some of the other great universities which followed are; -
The one at Paris(1150) , Oxford(1167) , Cambridge(1209)
and at Padua (1222) !
The University of Paris later became rather renowned,
When research on rediscovered works of Aristotle
began to be carried out!


SCHOLASTICISM DURING MEDIEVAL
PERIOD:
(From 9TH to 14TH Centuries)

Definitions:
The term ‘Scholasticism’ is derived from the Latin
word ‘scholasticus’, -
Meaning ‘that which belongs to the school’, with
educational focus!
They were erudite Schoolmen from the time of
Emperor Charlemagne;
Well versed in the ‘trivium’ (grammer, dialectic,
and rhetoric):
And also in the ‘quadrivium’(arithmetic, music,
geometry, astronomy) , or in theology!
When combined they formed the seven liberal arts,
And from here the medieval learning starts!
Therefore ‘scholasticism’ was not a school of
philosophy,
But a method of study and a teaching methodology!
The greatest of Medieval philosophers were also
theologians,
And in their writings they have tried to blend faith
with reason!
And while doing so, they also taught important ideas
of Philosophy,
Which were not always directly related to Theology!
But our study will remain incomplete if we forget,
That early Scholasticism also coincided -
With growth of Islamic philosophy and faith!
However, this topic will be dealt at a later time
and date!

STAGES OF SCHOLASTICISM:
The Scholastic period has been divided broadly into
three portions,
For easy understanding and better comprehension!
Its formative phase is covered between 9th and 12th
centuries;
With the 13th century seeing its Golden Age and
culmination;
While the 14th and the 15th centuries sees it’s gradual
decline and extinction!

The Formative Period:
We have already gone through the background of the
Scholastic Era,
And the valuable contributions of Scotus Erigena!
This period remains dominated by Platonic, Neo-
Platonic and Augustinian philosophical thoughts!
With the relationship between faith and reason, will
and intellect, -
And the status of the ‘universals’ and existence of God;
Remained upper most in the minds of Scholastics and
their thoughts!
But the problem of the ‘universals’ had occupied a
pre-eminent position, -
And the Scholastics became engrossed in its lengthy
philosophical discussions!

Problem of the Universals:
‘Universals’ are those properties or common features,
Shared by many individual things which exemplify
the universe!
Like the ‘redness’ of apples or ‘greenness’ of trees,
Or the ‘tallness’ of men - are a few examples of these!
The Realists believed that the ‘universals’ like Plato’s
‘Ideas’ or ‘Forms’,
Had also an existence as ‘ideals’ in a world beyond!
Nominalists like Ockham, Berkley and Goodman,
opposed this view;
The particular things exist only as individuals
objectively, - they claimed to be true!

The Conceptualists claimed the ‘universals’ existed
only in the human mind, -
As an eternal concept of the mental kind!
We may call it ‘the One’ or a mental conception,
Resulting in endless philosophical discussions!
Now my readers must pardon me for this thought
which has occurred to me, -
Does ‘humanity’ exist as an ‘universal’ in every
human being?
Or does it like Plato’s ‘forms’ remain a shadowy
thing? !
Let our modern philosophers find answers to these
things!
Now getting back to Scholasticism and its early
years,
Two philosophers who deserve a special mention,
Are St.Anslem and Peter Abelard, for their valuable
contributions!

St. ANSLEM of CANTERBURY(1033-1109) :

His Life:
Born in Aosta now in North Italy, to a noble family,
Was instructed in religion by his mother a devout
Christian lady.
In 1060 joined the Benedictine Abby of Bec in France
as a novice!
Studied under the eminent Lanfranc the theologian,
Who became his tutor and was also a dialectician!
Later Anslem succeeded his tutor, as the Abbot at
Bec;
And subsequently composed his works on religion
and philosophy.
Under him the Abbey became rich and famous,
As a leading center of learning in Europe, located in
France!
In 1092 he was invited by Hugh the Earl Chester to
visit England,
And in 1093 was offered the position of the Archbishop
of Canterbury by them!
But he was hounded by King William II of England,
Who was always trying to appropriate church lands
and income for his gains!
In 1097 Anslem left for Rome and could only return,
After being reinstated as Archbishop by the Pope, -
to continue his term!
Anslem died in 1109 at Canterbury, canonized by the
Catholic church in 1494 AD!
His Works:
Anslem’s writings were mostly in the form of dialogues
and meditations, -
With hardly any references to his predecessors in
quotations!
Though it showed influences of Augustine and also
Boethius!
His ‘Monologium’, ‘Proslogium’, ‘Dialogues on Truth’,
‘Free Will’ and on the ‘Fall of the Devil’;
Became well known in his time amongst the Medieval!
His Ontological Argument in the ‘Proslogium’, -
As proof for the Existence of God has made Anslem
famous!
God being the most perfect of beings, nothing greater
could be conceived than Him!
His arguments based on Platonic realism and a priori
reasoning, -
Stated that God’s existence is implied by the very
concept of His being!
His rational argument on the doctrine of creation,
original sin, free will, atonement, and the Trinity;
Had influenced later Scholastics and also Christian
theology!

PETER ABELARD (1079-1142) :

A scholastic philosopher born at Palais, near Nantes,
in 1079 AD,
Was a renowned French intellectual and theologian
of the 12th century!
For his scandalous romance with Heloise unfortunately,
He became better known to posterity!
Till Cousin published his philosophical works in 1836, -
Bringing his work into focus with publicity!
Studied under Roscellinus and also under William of
Champeaux at Notre –Dame,
But soon surpassed his teachers in dialectics and
arguments,
Thereby enhancing his own reputation and name!
Later attended theological lectures under a pupil of
St Anslem of Bec, named Anslem of Laon;
And in 1115 AD at Notre-Dame, got nominated as
a cannon!
At the height of his fame became a tutor to Heloise,
A fair young lady and cannon Fulbert’s niece;
And ever since then Abelard lost his mental peace!
Their secret love affair soon became well known,
And he escaped with her to Pallet, where their son
Astrolabe was born!
Their secret marriage enraged canon Fulbert,
And he soon took revenge by castrating Abelard!
Heloise subsequently entered the convent of
Argenteuil to become a nun!
Abelard’s life became marred with acquisitions,
quarrels, and blames;
His interpretation of Trinity was declared heretical,
And his books were thrown into flames!
Thus this renowned French philosopher and theologian
of the 12th century,
Spent his last days mostly in isolation and misery!
The tombs of Peter Abelard and Heloise now lie side
by side at the Pere Lachaise cemetery!

Influence Of Abelard:
He is primarily known as a renowned dialectician;
For investigating truth through debates and logical
arguments!
His unique method of presentation is seen in his –
‘Sic et Non’ (‘Yes and Nay’):
Where he put forth each thesis along with opposing
views;
Without providing his personal conclusions;
Leaving the readers to read, think and find their
own solutions!
This style was adopted later by others including
Peter the Lombard and St. Aquinas!
Abelard who was also a poet, expressed his Ethics
in verse; -
“God considered not action, but the sprit of action,
It is the intention, not the deed, wherein the merit
or praise of the doer consists! ”
He emphasized - ‘Reason aids Faith’, in the true spirit
of the Scholastics of his age!
His influence on the later thinkers of the 13th century,
Was exercised chiefly through his pupil Peter Lombard.
Lombard continued Abelard’s scholastic heritage;
As an enlightened opponent of obscurantism, -
Influencing later stalwarts of the Scholastic Age!

PETER LOMBARD (1100-1160) :

A Scholastic theologian, was born in NW Italy,
in a poor family.
Initially studied in the cathedral school in Italy.
Under the patronage of Otto, Bishop of Lucca,
To complete his further studies was sent to Reims
and Paris.
Later while teaching at the school in Notre Dame,
Came in contact with the famous Peter Abelard!
Lombard became a professor at the Notre Dame
School,
An erudite scholar who was highly capable!
After 1150 AD he became a Deacon and then an
Archdeacon;
And the Bishop of Paris around 1159 AD, after
some controversies;
But died the following year unfortunately!
Lombard is remembered to this day for his ‘Four
Books of Sentences’,
Where four centuries of scholastic interpretation of
Christian dogma was based!
It was a compilation of Biblical texts, with passages
from the Church Fathers and their philosophy;
Inclusive of many Medieval thinkers covering the
entire Christian Theology!
From 1220s until the 16th century, no other Christian
literature was commented upon more frequently,
With the sole exception of the Holy Bible!
‘The Sentences’ became a part of the curriculum of
Medieval Universities,
On which the students were required to lecture and
write commentaries, -
To earn their Masters Degree!


GOLDEN AGE OF SCHOLASTICISM:
THE 13TH CENTURY

Background:
From the earlier periods of storm and stress,
We now move towards a relative period of calm
and perfection!
From the criticism and controversies of the 12th
century, -
To an era of synthesis and positive constructions!
The 13th century is regarded as the Golden Age of
Scholastic philosophy;
Time was now ripe for constructing systems for, -
Metaphysics, Psychology and Christian theology!
Three main events that influenced the development
of Christian thoughts; -
Were the rise of Universities, foundation of the
Mendicant Orders, -
And re-introduction of works of Aristotle, which
the world had forgot!

Aristotle and the Universities:
This subject had already been covered earlier on;
It was the Cathedral Schools which finally into
Universities got transformed!
The Crusades and their subsequent re-conquest of Spain,
Brought Europe into contact with the Muslims once
again!
The Muslims by translating Aristotle and Classical treaties,
Had preserved those valuable works for posterity!
Medieval scholars made Latin translations of Classics, -
From Syriac, Hebrew and Arabic!
But those translated direct from Greek, were considered
to be more authentic!
The physical, metaphysical and ethical treaties of Aristotle,
Now got included in libraries of 13th century Schoolmen;
And were also added to the curriculum of Schools and
Universities by then!
For a Bachelor’s degree one had to study four year’s of
Trivium,
And for Masters it was compulsory to study Quadrivium;
These have been explained by me while defining the term -
‘Scholasticism’!

Influence of the Mendicant Orders:
The Franciscans Order was founded in 1209 by St Francis
of Assisi, in Italy;
And the Dominican by St Dominic in France in 1216 AD.
A famous scholastic theologian named Alexander Hales,
Who was teaching in the University of Paris those days,
Had entered the Franciscan Order in 12 36;
And created a Franciscan school of theology at the
University of Paris!
The best way to study theology, St Aquinas is know
to have said,
Was to get attached to that ‘Angelic Doctor’ called –
Alexander Hales!
Hales had also promoted the writings of Anslem of
Canterbury, -
Who had remained ignored for almost a century!
During the mid 13th century the Franciscan scholar
Bonaventure,
Became the leader of the Franciscan Order!
He was a traditionalist, who defended the philosophy
of Plato and St Augustine,
And in his writings very little of Aristotle one can
find!
‘Reason can only discern truth’, following Anslem
he said, -
‘When philosophy is illuminated by religious faith’!
Other important Franciscan writers of the period were, -
Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and Ockham with his ‘razor’!
In contrast, the Dominicans used Aristotelian sources,
Which were derived from the East and Moorish Spain;
And they placed emphasis on the use of reason!
Two greatest representatives of the Dominicans were, -
Albert Magnus and St Thomas Aquinas.

ALBERT MAGNUS (1193 – 1280)
Born in Bavaria in Germany, studied in the University
of Padua in Italy.
He digested and interpreted Aristotle’s thoughts very
methodically;
Freeing it from the colorings of earlier Arabic interpreters
totally!
And became the first to apply them to Christian philosophy
unhesitatingly!
He entered the Order of the Dominican friars in 1223,
And was the first German in the University of Paris, -
to become Master of Theology!
With his encyclopedic knowledge he commented on; –
Theology, biology, astronomy, geology, chemistry,
zoology, logic, alchemy, and on many other things;
Advocating the co-existence of Science and Religion
above everything!
Thus Magnus became a dominant figure in the evolution
of Christian scholastic thought!
Thanks for reading! All copy rights are reserved by -
RAJ NANDY

COMMENTS OF THE POEM
Indira Renganathan 01 April 2010

Your enormous interest and careful study has resulted in a treasure...makes the reader visit many more times....God bless 'Since quest for truth remains philosophy’s ultimate mission, The medieval scholars sincerely did uphold that unique tradition'....what a wonderful write....thank you

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Raj Nandy 31 March 2010

In this portion, the young generation, finds the verses on PETER ABELARD and his ill-fated love for Heloise as interesting! Abelard was finally castrated by the uncle of Heloise! -Raj Nandy

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